Photo: Ioana Cîrlig
In the following lines, we discuss the myth of the Forest Maiden in relation to a series of similar figures that stand out through their wildness and aggression in the local folkloric culture from the past centuries. These figures contribute, in one form or another, through a constant and chaotic revival, to the continuity of the narrative representations found in the mythologies of Mesopotamia, Ancient Greece, or the Roman Empire. At the same time, they adapt to a vast cultural area that extends beyond the boundaries of continental Europe. In this regard, we will observe how several mythical feminine and masculine entities form the basis of a rich repertoire of interconnected folkloric themes exploring: nature (the surrounding landscape), gender power dynamics, and supernatural (divine) punishment. We will present both “forest spirits,” such as the Forest Maiden, the Forest Crone, the Vâlva, and the Forest Man, and water entities, like the Sea Maiden, the Sirens, the Water Man, and nocturnal figures such as the Iele and the Night Man as well. These folkloric figures can easily be described within a common category due to their connections with certain pre-ancient, Roman, or medieval mythical representations, such as demons of the incubus and succubus type or the Wild Man.
The history of the Forest Maiden myth and its relationship with Muma Pădurii (the Forest Crone)
The Forest Maiden appears recurrently in the mythology of Maramureș, Bukovina, Moldavia, Transylvania, and the Ukrainian region of Transcarpathia starting with the second half of the 19th century. The stories featuring her presence were included in collections by folklorists such as Ion Pop Reteganul, A. Onaciu, Kadar Joszef, Grigore Moldovan, Vasiliu Criste, Simion Florea Marian, and Elena Niculiță-Voronca. The myth gradually spread to Bihor and Banat, and in the following century, ethnographic research continued with figures like Tache Papahagi, Ion Mușlea, V. Scurtu, I.A. Candrea, Marcel Olinescu, Ovidiu Bârlea, Otilia Hedeșan, and later, in the current century, with Constantin Eretescu, Pamfil Bilțiu, or Maria Ioniță (Drăgoi, 2009: 13). In most stories, the Forest Maiden is a “bringer of death,” a demonic entity who becomes the fatal antagonist of shepherds, especially young men who get lost in the dark wilderness of the forest. This can be interpreted as an initiation myth aimed at young shepherds, foresters, and other inhabitants of these densely vegetated landscapes. Most descriptions indicate her long hair, which covers much of her body. “(…) there was a girl with breasts like a woman’s, and in her mouth too! And a body like a woman’s, with long, black hair and eyebrows… But from the neck down, all, all, all was hair” (Hedeșan, 2000, 12). However, there are many variations in the disfigurements with which this entity can be encountered. Depending on the storyteller’s choice, the Forest Maiden is either “young and beautiful” or old and “monstrous,” which likely led ethnologist and anthropologist Constantin Eretescu to conclude that this mythical figure “has invaded the space of other supernatural beings and taken over their functions” (Eretescu, 2007: 109).
The Forest Maiden, like many other folkloric representations, appears under a wide range of anthroponyms that vary according to the geography of the community being studied and the time when ethnographic data was recorded: Pădureana or Pădureanca in some sources, Fata, Fata Nopții (Night Girl), Fata de Pădure (Forest Girl), Fata Dracului (Devil’s Girl), Ciufu Nopții (Night Owl), Ileana Pădurii (Ileana of the Forest), and Știma Pădurii (Forest Spirit). The same character is associated with other demonic figures, such as Avizuha, Frumușelele (the Beauties), the Forest Crone (Muma Pădurii), or Marțolea (Drăgoi, 2009: 13), as well as other anthropomorphic characters like Vâlva Pădurii. While some ethnographic studies do not differentiate between the Forest Maiden and the Forest Crone, other folklore collections depict the former as the latter’s daughter (Ilea, 2018: 244) or as entities with no direct connection other than the forest setting that they both inhabit.
Eretescu believes that the confusion between the Forest Maiden and the Forest Crone stems from the name and the physical polymorphism of the latter, although the same polymorphism can be observed in both cases, alongside other common aspects such as the anthropomorphization of the forest through the manifestation of a demonic behaviour. It is also noted that folkloric narratives on the Forest Maiden and other similar characters overlap with the rise of aesthetic currents that make use of these myths, particularly in folk ballads, where themes centred on figures “cut out” from oral stories are converted into dramatic characters like the Forest Maiden, Sila Samodiva, or the Scorpia. (The Samodiva, according to the volume “Folklore Studies” edited by Lazăr Șăineanu, has a Bulgarian origin and designates a fairy with “genius” characteristics who resides in orchards or crossroads, while the Scorpia is another female monster who lures and kills young men.) Such literary movements and the echoes one hear in folk music “secularize the myths” (Alexandru, 2018: 173) and contribute to the darkening of certain folkloric creations’ genesis.
A primary argument for this darkening is the ambiguity surrounding the relationship between the Forest Maiden and the Forest Crone, where the familial connection can be easily justified by elements such as the fact that family organization is one of the defining aspects of Romanian fairy tales. The mythology documented here is abundant with characters like: Muma Zmeilor (Mother of the Ogres), Muma Soarelui (Mother of the Sun), Muma Vânturilor (Mother of the Winds—Crivăț, the Stormy Wind, the Spring Wind, the Winter Wind), or Fata Ciumei (Daughter of the Plague), Fata Mărilor (Daughter of the Seas), Fata Apelor (Daughter of the Waters), Fata Înflorită din Flori Născută (Flower-Born Daughter), Fata Meiului (Daughter of Millet), Fata Grâului (Daughter of Wheat), Fata Florii-Soarelui (Daughter of the Sunflower), and Fata Născută din Piatră (Stone-Born Daughter) (Ilea, 2019: 95).
Yet, the nuclear family structure does not always appear explicitly in texts or records; it can be “read” or explained through correspondences and thought models typical of folkloric stories across most cultural areas. Some sources indicate that the Forest Crone’s children are the spirits of the night—Murgilă (Twilight), Miazănoapte (Midnight), and Zorilă (Dawn)—while other narratives focus on figures like Moșul-codrului (the Old Man of the Forest), Tatăl-pădurii (the Father of the Forest), Pădurarul (the Forester), Păduroiul (the Woodman), or Mareș-tată (Father Mareș). However, none are considered to be the Forest Crone’s partner or the father of the Forest Maiden, but rather the male version of the same character. In general, Romanian mythology tends to separate the presence of parents in the context of birth or child-rearing, and as Bogdan Neagota notes, both parents appear simultaneously in a story only in a crisis situation, such as infertility. When it comes to demonic figures in folklore, motherhood is “always exclusive” (Neagota, 2005: 76).
The form that the Forest Crone—associated by some ethnographers with the Great Goddess or Bendis from Thracian mythology, the protector of fields, vegetation, and hunting—takes in Romanian folklore is attributed to transformations brought about by the spread of Christianity in Central and Eastern Europe, which “clothed” pre-Christian entities in a “uniform” more suited to the patriarchal order. (Ilea, 2018: 245).
The Wild Man, Succubus-Incubus, and Other Demons
In the mythic dimension, the origin of the Forest Maiden (Pădurena) is often represented by an abusive episode in which a young girl gets lost in the forest and is further led astray by a boy of similar age, whose intentions are solely violent and sexual. “Since then, she haunts the forests and their surroundings both day and night, being seen by many people” (Mureșan, 2018: 160). We can see how similar myths also influence recent cinematic works, such as I Spit on Your Grave (1978) by Meir Zarchi, which was remade in 2010 by Steven R. Monroe. These are popular examples in the horror genre, where many scenarios are based on the type of myth discussed here.
The descriptive variations in connection with the mythical actions attributed to the Forest Maiden highlight narrative characteristics that recall the Wild Man, a character who is also found in the wood, often depicted with an emphasis on primitivism and sexuality. The Wild Man appears frequently in Western cultural expressions during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, as the Wilder Mann or Iron Hans (Eisenhans, Iron John), figures also found in the Grimm Brothers’ collections (Barutcieff, 2007: 43). Different versions of the Wild Man and various motifs related to him appear in local mythology with characters like the Forest Maiden, the Forest Crone, or the Forest Man. Any of these three, or their medieval versions, are proven heirs to the Roman cult dedicated to Silvanus, a tutelary deity recognized as the ruler of Alpine forests, most frequently mentioned in the 2nd century CE.
The Wild Man myth easily overlaps with narratives regarding the Night Man (Omul Nopții), popular in Maramureș and throughout northern Romania. These stories portray him as a cannibalistic monster, who is constantly in conflict with the Forest Maiden. “If he caught her, it was terrifying what he would do to her,” one person from Maramureș recounted. “He would beat her and I don’t know what else. He would chase her and catch her, and then came the screams and wailing. She didn’t want to make love to him because she needed human men, not the Night Man. Who knows how ugly he was” (Bilțiu, 1999: 173). The Wild Man recurs in the stories of locals from Țara Hațegului in the 19th and 20th centuries, but he can also be identified with the Half-Man (Jumătate-de-Om), a character from Muntenian folklore that spread in the early 20th century and was presented as a malevolent threat to shepherds, who often managed to defeat him through mental cleverness or using “spontaneous props” (Barutcieff, 2007: 48), much like in some stories about the Forest Maiden, where she is lured to a well and captured with the help of a symbolic boot. The same Wild Man myth can also be analysed in relation to the Căpcăun, a man-eating figure frequently illustrated in Romanian fairy tales.
Another source of inspiration that enriches the Forest Made myth comes from ancient history, particularly Mesopotamian mythology, with the deity Lamashtu, a figure that functions both as an incubus and succubus, interrupting pregnancies and stealing children. Similar demonic female figures are described in other pre-Christian myths, such as the Neo-Sumerian or Indian traditions. Comparable are the changelings and faeries from Irish folklore, as well as numerous other creatures from these mythologies. In Southeast Europe, a similar figure with an identical role is Samca (or Avestița, “Satan’s wing”), whose enemy is Saint Sisinnius (Neagota, 2005: 80), just as the Night Man is for the Forest Maiden. This emphasizes how the use of figures inspired by demonology serves as an attempt to popularize church beliefs, which cannot occur without the existence of an antagonist, threat, or demon.
The myths surrounding the attacks caused by the Forest Maiden or the Forest Crone often refer to the abduction of newborns who were insufficiently watched by their mothers. In the case of the Forest Maiden, most stories explain the abduction by saying that she also has children, but they possess repulsive, inhuman traits, hence her preference for the children of others. The Night Man is accused of the same deeds, just as Silvanus and Wilder Mann were, although in some versions, the purpose of the abduction becomes positive due to its initiatory nature.
Marțolea, Ielele, and the Sirens
The Forest Maiden is sometimes mistaken for Marțolea or Marți Seara (Tuseday Evening), though most folklore collections distinguish between these figures. What the Forest Maiden, Marțolea, Joimărița, or the Frumușelele (Beautiful Ones) have in common is their role in governing local production, particularly in relation to punishing women who worked at night, especially spinning wool or weaving, by physically torturing them or stealing their tools. Likewise, washing clothes at specific times of the day, or during certain Christian holidays, would provoke “corrections” from these figures, taking the voice of the victims or getting them lost in the forest. In many tales, the aggression of these entities, and the subsequent healing of the victim, is resolved through a church service. Thus, the violation of a church ordinance is punished in a supernatural dimension and then accepted (or forgiven) once the victim undergoes a series of hardships.
In many cases, Frumușelele appear to be regional names for Iele, though they are sometimes mentioned as distinct spirits. Similar to Pan, who in Ancient Greece symbolized rustic musical creation, the Iele are often depicted playing a “magic flute” or “accompanied by bagpipers who play while they dance” (Neagota, 2005: 89). The Forest Maiden uses music in a similarly hypnotic way, with tales collected over time depicting her singing with her voice or flute while leading a dance or horă. Another similarity between the Forest Girl and the Iele is their method of revenge against young men, through attraction, abduction, and/or destruction.
This type of anthropomorphization of the geographical space, as seen in the myths of the Forest Maiden, the Forest Crone (Muma Pădurii), and the Night Man (Omul Nopții), follows the same pattern used in the myths of the Sirens, which appear in numerous literary, theatrical, or cinematic examples. Eretescu describes the Forest Maiden as a “siren of the forest,” justifying this through the erotic character that storytellers and folklore collectors have attributed to the character (Eretescu, 2007: 109). Although sirens have not found a particularly “comfortable” space in Romanian folklore, they do appear occasionally in the imagination and stories of some people. In Pamfil Bilțiu’s collection, a person recounts that “once,” in a mythical, timeless past, they encountered a siren in Năvodari, and others mention interactions with a Fish-Girl (Fată-Pește). However, much more frequently mentioned is the Water Man (Omul Apei), who in the same collection is linked to the Forest Girl as her husband in an undefined, ancient past. The Water Man is similarly described to the Night Man or forest entities in terms of bodily anomalies—“he was so large they couldn’t even see his hooves” (Bilțiu: 163)—but his role is less malevolent than others and often blends with the myth of the “Golden Fish.”
The forests within the present-day territory of Romania were much more extensive in past centuries than we can imagine today, which explains the abundance of forest creatures in folktales and other folkloric narratives. The Vâlva Pădurii is another name designating a mythical woodland creature, and it also has a widespread presence. However, this is not a singular character, considering that the general term signifies a spirit or a fairy. There can be multiple Vâlve ale pădurii (woodland fairies) simultaneously, and folklore generally records a vâlvă for everything: Vâlva Lupilor (fairy of wolves), Vâlva Băilor (fairy of baths), Vâlva Apei (fairy of water), Vâlva Ciumei (fairy of plague), Vâlva Bucatelor (fairy of food), etc. The Vâlva Pădurii also has offspring, similar to the Forest Maiden, but in this case, they are small goblins. However, the myths surrounding the Vâlva Pădurii present her role as more tempered and protective towards the forest and those living nearby, compared to the Forest Maiden, who “systematically appears to unmarried young men or adolescent boys sent to work alone at the sheepfold or in places where forests are being cleared; she is not dangerous except to them, disappearing or at least softening her violence if a woman is present (even a young girl of just a few years!) or if there is at least the synecdochic sign of a woman (such as the ‘hem of a girl’s or woman’s skirt’)” (Hedeșan, 2000: 49).
A peculiar fact connected to this myth is that, in many versions, the emphasis falls on the Forest Maiden’s presence in areas where deforestation is happening or in situations where she frightens forest workers or shepherds, who can be seen here as guardians of the woodland space. These myths “enter circulation” during a historical period when the timber industry undergoes massive development, substantially altering the map of European forests, while colonial relations in Europe are being reshaped. Under such circumstances, it seems that the role of the Forest Maiden would be to send the following message: “Do not approach certain areas of the forest. You must not see anything.” Some ethnographic records from the late 20th century present versions in which the Forest Maiden meets her end and is permanently defeated by the locals in the area where she appeared, as if there was no longer any reason for her to scare them and drive them away from the forests thereafter. However, the “death” of the Forest Maiden is not universally recognized, and her survival is confirmed through the field research conducted by ANTROPOFLORA in Maramureș at the end of this summer, where different versions of the Fata Pădurii myth were recorded from contemporary sources, including one in which the character is described, in a more spectacular way than what we have recorded so far, as a blue flame.
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